Description of Major Methods Of Psychology

Some of the most widely used methods of psychology are listed below:

• (I) Observation—Introspection (self-observation t and objective observation 
• (ii) Experimental method
• (iii) Interview
• (iv) Case study method
• (V) Questionnaire
• (vi) Cross—sectional method
• (vii) Longitudinal method
• (viii) Sequential method and
• (ix) Survey method.

Let us briefly describe the above methods one by one.

Observation—Introspection (Self- observation) and Objective Observation

Observation is a basic method of scientific study employed Lw all sciences. For this reason, i is generally remarked —’a science begins and also ends with observation’ ‘Observation’ means ‘to look’ or ‘to view’. One may view or observe an event either directly or through sophisticated equipment/instruments. Direct observation is referred le unaided observation while observing by using instruments is called aided observation In psychology, we use both kinds of observation—’aided and unaided’. Aided observations are employed to observe implicit activities under a particular state or situation. For example, in a stale of emotional feeling observing the level of blood pressure by using sphygmomanometer (B.P. instrument), heart heat by using stethoscope. changes occurring in cardiovascular mechanism through electro cardiogram (ECO), respiratory changes through phneumograph etc. All such observations are aided observations. Direct or unaided observation is used to observe explicit or overt behaviors .such as walking, laughing. smiling, jumping, sneezing etc. All such behaviors van be observed by anybody with naked eyes.
Observation, whether aided or unaided, is important to describe any fact or event. So, in order lo describe facts of behavior, psychologists also use observation. Through observation, he becomes aware of the individual or the organism, he discovers the interrelationships of various activities and the conditions under which particular activity occurs. Such observations enable him to explain the behavior of the individual or the organism.

However, as we know, psychology studies behavior as well as mental experiences. Hence, psychologists try to observe both kinds of events—experiences and overt or covert bodily activities. Thus, in psychological studies, observation takes two distinct forms—a:’ Introspective observation se1Í—observation and (b) objective observation. Let us examine these two forms of observations separately.

Introspection (self-observation): The term introspection is made of two terms—’inter + inspection’; meaning to look within the self or viewing within the self. Obviously, this refers to self-observation, When an individual describes his subjective experiences, effective slates—feelings and emotions, the flow of ideas, what mental operations go on when he encounters a problem, what solutions come w his mind, how he lakes u decision or reasons to solve it problem etc. are called introspection or self-observation. The subjects by observing his own personal feelings, ideas. thoughts, etc. are able lo describe or report about conscious activities of his mind in verbal terms either in writing or orally. Such introspective reports yield useful information to the psychologists for analysing the mental process t implicit mental activities :1. Certain aspects of psychological problems such as secrets about the sexual relationships between husband and wife and similar other aspects of rule’s private life affairs can be studied only by introspection.

Introspection is a very common and simple procedure. Anybody may turn his thoughts inward and inspect or reflect upon his experiences. This is what we call introspection or self observation. Introspection indeed is a classical method of psychology. ‘Wilhelm Wundt and ‘Titchner’ introduced this method for the first lime in their system—structuralism. But, Wundts procedure of’ introspection was somewhat different. Wundt thought of analyzing the sensory experiences into elements just as the chemists analyse the chemical compounds into elements. Wundl also used apparatus to measure and manipulate stimuli t in laboratory condition to arouse experiences and the subjects were asked to inspect their own experiences and report systematically. This procedure of self-observation is termed as experimental introspection. Wundt’ also used especially (rained introspectionists who were able to describe an object in terms of its impact on ones senses, i.e. in terms of certain attributes of sensory experiences (eg. quality, intensity, duration. vividness etc. For example. suppose a subject is shown a piece of chalk which he describes as follows: I am seeing a cylindrical (hin hite object which I felt as hard and lacked flavour or smell

Merits and Limitations/demerits : Since psychology studies the experience and behavior both, no doubt, introspection is an useful method to study conscious experience aspect as well as its relationship with certain forms or patterns of behavior. Some of the important points of its advantages are as follows:

• To study the implicit mental experiences. introspection is the only appropriate option, because, what goes on inside our mind is inaccessible by nay other direct method or observation. 
• Introspection is a useful technique for other objective methods of study as it can supplement (he facts which cannot be accessible by other direct methods and thus, makes the study more useful. Besides, the facts gathered through introspection can he used as a ‘check’ lo the facts gathered by other techniques or procedures. hence, introspective observation is advantageous in the sense that it makes the study perfect and dependable. This is the reason that even today. psychologists consider rninspection as indispensable technique for psychological studies.
• Introspection also bears historical significance. Psychology as ¿in experimental science was formally founded by Wundt’ when he established first psychological laboratory at Leipzig University in Germany (1879) and where he trained Kant and Titchner’ as Introspectionist and a formal school—structuralism —emerged. Thus, psychology as an independent scientific discipline carne into existence with introspection as a method. 
• Introspection is in unique method that distinguishes psychology as a science from other natural sciences. For example. judgments regarding relative differences between two weights are done by both the psychologists as well as by physicists. But a psychologist comes to a conclusion (accuracy and possible extent of error) about the judgment basing upon introspective Statement of a subject’s mental experience whereas a physicist uses a measuring balance 10 weigh the two weights and then judge which one is heavier or lighter Thus, introspection is an unique method that distinguishes the science of psychology from the other natural sciences.

Limitations/demerits: However, the method suffers from certain demerits. Some of the salient demerits arc as follows:

• Introspection is a subjective method, hence, the described facts about mental experiences concern only un the experiencing individual. Therefore, any generalization on this basis ¡s likely to be erroneous. Hence, not practicable for generalization.
• Introspection does not fulfil the scientific criteria of a method In similar situations. the experiences of Iwo individuals and even of the same individual on two (different occasions are likely to vary. Thus, no concrete and definite conclusions can be drawn. 
• While introspecting, the same individual lias to get himself involved in two kinds of mental activities—lo experience the stimuli and to observe what goes on in his mind. Experiencing and observing are two distinct activities which cannot run parallel to each oilier. What we call introspection is in fact retrospection (post facto observation). i.e. observing the facts of experience after experiencing event is over. Such observations are likely 14) be erroneous because of the limited duration and capacity of our immediate memory (working memory that goes on in short term memory Under the situation, most of the experienced facts are likely to be forgotten as they may drop off from immediate memory very soon.
• Introspection also suffers from limitations of applicability. This method cannot be used with animals, young children, the feeble-minded. and those who are suffering from mental pathologies. Similarly, the geriatric individuals, colour blinds, tone—deaf or taste blinds also cannot introspect their menial experiences properly.
• Our most of the experiences are either wholly or partially repressed into unconscious which are inaccessible lo self—observation or introspection.
• Self-observed facts arc unverifiable and cannot be checked by other observers. Hence, nut dependable. Self—Observation reports are likely to be Iflisreporle4l or flot honestly reported. Hence, not much reliable and analysis may go wrong.

Considering the above-mentioned demerits or limitations of introspection method, psycho logists also use some other methods that can be relied upon as well as yield useful inÍormation about time problem ol psychological study.

Case Study Method

Case study’ is also an important method employed in psychological studies. It is mostly used in clinical situations. For this reason, often case study’ is also known as ‘clinical method’. Case study involves study of a particular vase. i.e. the individual one at a time, In this method, emphasis is given on in depth’ study of the particular case. The psychologists focus on the cases which can provide critical information or new learning ou less understood phenomena The case can he an individual with certain distinguishing characteristics (e.g. patient with psychological disorders, a small group of individuals showing some commonness (e.g. creative writers), institutions (e.g. poorly or successful functioning) and specific events (e.g. devastation by tsunami. war, or born blasting events by terrorists, vehicular pollutions ete . The cases selected br study are usually unique and, therefore, can provide rich information, Case study method, in clinical cases, involves preparation of the life history of the case by collecting information from various sources. The basic sources are as follows:

Day book: This method is often used in child study. Child’s development is carefully watched and recorded day-by-day. ¡t may contain some questions like—when the baby first began to sand. sic. walk and talk etc. Such records help the psychologist in judging the normality of the developmental processes o the individual child.

Clinical examination: It is an elaboration and extension of day book records. This involves exploration of past life history and present life situation of the case on the basis of information received from (he case itself, his close associates like parents. teachers, peers. friends or others who relate to the case. Such information’s help the psychologist to discover the cause of and solution to some emotional or adjustment related problems. It also involves three types of professionals—the physicians. the social workers and the psychometricians Physician examines tIme case for signs of iiysica1 illness, social worker searches oui the home or family atmosphere and the psychomctrician administers certain psychological tests to measure psychological attributes such as aptitude, intelligence. various dimensions of personality etc.

Autobiography and/or biography: Such records contain full records o the pas life of history of the case in detail. Such records help the clinicians to understand the antecedents that may be associated with the development of the present patterns of behaviors.

Thus, case studs method in fact, is an important tool of obtaining information about a particular case, It is a combination of features of clinical observation, experiment and systematic observation. Following are the merits and demerits limitations of case studs’ method, Merits tim) Case study method makes inIensie and ui—depth study nl the particular case becaUse it examines the lull life history of the case. h:m This method traces hack to the stage to which the lresemI foi-in of behaviour relates.

• This method is particularly uselul in handling the behaviour disorders in various areas of interaction, such as in schools, at home or ¡n work simatiomis, 
• It is also useful in validating the facts gathered by other methods. 

Merits

• Case study iiiethod ritakes intcnsir and ui—depth study or tite panicular case because il examines the full life history of the case.
• This method traces hack to the stage lo which the present fonn of behaviour relates.
• This method is particularly uselul in handling the behaviour disorders in various areas of interaction, such as in schnook, at home or in work situations.
• It is also useful in validating the facts gathered by other methods,

Demerits/Limitations

(ii) The conclusions based oit case study are relatively less reliable and dependable as the information passed on by tite close associates of the case often do not reveal afl the relevant fuels honestly and try to maintain confidentiality.

b) The close associates or those who relate to the case also present the facts as per their own subjective iliterprelatiolis. Hence, most of such facts are not oblective rather biased, c:i Historical records of life events largely depend on memory which arc likely lo be transformed or restructured or possibly one may fail to retrieve some relevant events accurately.

d Variations in biographical records may he found. Such variations may confound the researcher to come to a conclusion,

(e) Often it becomes cumbersome 10 arrange case history records systematically. It so happens because (lie past life event histories are not presented in orderly manner, Hence. though the case history method is useful for clinical purposes as well as for other arcs of research, the researcher should be cautious enough in interpreting the records keeping in mind the above outlined limitations.

Questionnaire Method

Questionnaire’ is also an unimportant loot ut’ data collisions which is very widely used in researches involving behavioral studies ¡t is in fact, most common, simple. versatile and low cost sell-report ninetieths, Questionnaire consists of a predetermined set of questions and the respondents arc required lo answer tittle iss instructed to re’.pond. Titus device is used lo collect factual information from the respondent himself. The questionnaire can he administered both in the individual and in group simations The set of questions in questionnaire is prepared with duc precaution and blowing the norms such as simplicity nf language, clarity of meaning. using short sentefl,.es, avoiding the use of double meaning words in the sentence etc.

Types of questionnaire

Questionnaires are classified in dilicrent types on the following bases:

• On the basis of type of TCSOflSC required.

On the basis of administration of questionnaire and Ic) On the basis nl PUOSC nl study.
On (he basis of tYpe of response required: Based on the type or modes of response. questionnaires are classified in two types:

• Closed-end questionnaire and lb Open-end questionnaire
• Closed-end questionnaire: ¡n closed-end type of questionnaire, the questions and their probable ¿uiswcrs in fixed categories arc given and the respondents arc required to exercise a selection of the category that best fils or suits him. Tite fixed categories of answer may he like yes/no. true/falsc/douhtful categories. Sonic questionnaires also contain niulti choice options ‘:niuhi option response—MOR) arranged in a scale such as 3 point. 5 poiiii or 7 point. 9 point. 11 point etc, In sorne cases, the subjects are asked to rank a number of things in preferential order. For example. look at the hllowing saml)le:

I Do you feel shy in group? Yes/No
2. Do you enjoy when you are with your friends? Yes/No

(h) Open-end questionnaire: lit this type of questionnaire, the respondent is free to write whatever answers he/she considers appropriate. It contains no fixed alternative categories of answer or response. For example. look at tite following sample:

• What arc the causes of youth unrest?
• Why someone feels afraid whemi he itteels a stranger?

Here, the respondent is free to mention several factors that he thinks are appropriate. On the basis of administration of questionnaire: On this basis, a questionnaire muy be either a ‘mailed’ questionnaire or a ‘face-to-face’ questionnaire. The former form of questionnaire is used on the designated outstation respondents by mailing through post on their addresses. While mailing the questionnaire, return addressed stamped envelop is enclosed for returning the filled-in questionnaire. However. one of the demerits in the use of mailed questionnaire is thai ,ti